principles of his philosophy
One of the historical works that he is said to have compiled and edited, the Ch'un Ch'iu (Spring and Autumn Annals), is an annalistic account of Chinese history in the state of Lu from 722 to 481 BC. In learning he wished to be known as a transmitter rather than as a creator, and he therefore revived the study of the ancient books. His own teachings, together with those of his main disciples, are found in the Shih Shu (Four Books) of Confucian literature, which became the textbooks of later Chinese generations.
The Teachings of Confucius
Confucius lived in times when there was constant warfare between neighboring states
and local warlords had little concern for the high moral principles enunciated by an itinerant
teacher. While his goal was to bring peace and order to states his words had little effect during
his lifetime. His ideas subsequently became the foundation for most of the concern for humanity
found in subsequent Chinese philosophy. Unfortunately, his name has often been used as a cloak for
despotic rule, by a false analogy between a dictator and the head of a family.
Some primary aspects of Confucius's thought are to be found in The Great Learning and in
The Doctrine of the Mean (referred to here as the Doctrine of Equilibrium and Harmony). Parts
of these are given here, followed by extracts from The Analects, a large collection of sayings
of and about Confucius.
The Doctrine of Equilibrium and Harmony
1 The heavens have conferred a human nature on mankind alone. Acting according to our humanity provides the true path through life. Wisdom from the past helps us learn how to follow this path. It is wrong to leave this path for an instant. A path which you are free to leave is not the true path. On this account, the superior man is cautious and careful with respect to where he focuses his attention and how he is regarded; he is anxious to give his mind to only what is worth listening to and what is worth saying. Secret thoughts and minute expressions of concealed feelings may be transparently obvious. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself even when alone. When there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in a state of equilibrium. When those feelings are stirred and act in their due degree,
there ensues what may be called a state of harmony. Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all acts of humanity; harmony is the universal path that guides them. Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout the heavens and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.
The Great Learning
2 The path for learning greatness is to illuminate the goodness in man, to bring out what is best in people, and to achieve the highest excellence. Once the true point of departure on this path is found, thought becomes clear. A calm imperturbability yields the tranquility needed for careful deliberation. That deliberation will achieve the desired goal.
3 Things have their roots and their branches. Affairs have their ends and their beginnings. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in The Great Learning.
4 The ancients wishing to exhibit goodness throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own states. To order well their own states, they first brought order into their families. To bring order into their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons,they first rectified their hearts. To rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things.
The investigation of things rounded out knowledge. Their knowledge being rounded out, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, order was brought into their families. Their families being in order, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy.
5 From the supreme ruler down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything else. When the root is neglected, what springs from it cannot be well ordered. What is of great importance cannot be slightly cared for, nor can what is of slight importance be greatly cared for.
The Analects
Confucius Himself
6 When the disciple Tsze-lu asked to hear his wishes, Confucius replied, “They are, in regard to the aged, to give them rest; in regard to friends, to show them sincerity; in regard to the young, to treat them tenderly.”
7 When Tsze-kung asked for one word that may serve as a rule of practice for all one’s life. Confucius asked, “Is not reciprocity such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.”
8 Confucius remarked to Tsze-yu, “My doctrine is that of an all-pervading unity.” When Confucius went out, the other disciples asked what these words meant. Tsze-yu replied, “The doctrine of our master is to be true to the principles of our natures and to exercise them benevolently towards others— this and nothing more.”
9 His disciples listed four things that their Master taught—letters, ethics, devotion of soul, and truthfulness. They said he was entirely free of four things—foregone conclusions, arbitrary predetermination, obstinacy, and egoism.
10 Frequent themes for Confucius were the Chinese Odes, history, and maintaining rules of propriety. He said, “It is by the Odes that the mind is aroused. It is by the Rules of Propriety that the character is established. And it is from Music that the finish is received.”
11 Confucius said “Without knowing the force of words, it is impossible to know men.” He
remarked that three hundred pieces in the Book of Odes could be summed up in one sentence—“Have
no twisted or depraved thoughts.” Of language itself , he said, “It is simply required that it convey the meaning.”
12 His disciples recall that Confucius did not talk about extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, or spiritual beings. When Tsze-lu asked about serving the spirits of the dead Confucius responded, “While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits?” Tsze-lu went on, “May I ask about death?”
He received the answer, “While you do not know life, how can you know about death?” Confucius remarked, “The study of strange doctrines is injurious indeed!”
13 The things in reference to which Confucius exercised the greatest caution were—fasting, sickness and war.
14 Tsze-lu asked, “If you had the conduct of the armies of a great State, whom would you have
to act with you?” Confucius replied, “I would not have him to act with me who will unarmed attack
a tiger, or cross a river without a boat, dying without any regret. My associate must be the man
who proceeds to action full of thoughtfulness, who is fond of carefully laying out his plans, and then carries them into execution.”
15 The stable was burned down when Confucius was at court; on his return he asked, “Has any man been hurt?” He did not ask about the horses.
16 When any of his friends died, if he had no relations who could be depended on for the necessary offices, he would say, “I will bury him.” When he saw any one in a mourning dress, his countenance would become grave. When Confucius was eating by the side of a mourner, he never ate to the full. He did not sing on the same day in which he had been weeping.
17 Confucius said of Kung-ye Chang that he could become married: although he was put in bonds, he had not been guilty of any crime. Accordingly, he gave him his own daughter to wife.
18 Confucius valued filial piety. He suggested, “In serving his parents, a son may remonstrate with them, but gently; when he sees that they do not incline to follow his advice, he shows an increased degree of reverence, but does not abandon his purpose; and should they punish him, he does not allow himself to murmur.”
19 He said, “A youth is to be regarded with respect. How do we know that his future will not be equal to our present? If he reach the age of forty or fifty and has not made himself heard of, then indeed he will not be worth being regarded with respect.”
20 The Music-master, Mien, having called upon him, when they came to the steps, Confucius said,
“Here are the steps.” When they came to the mat for the guest to sit on, he said, “Here is the
mat.” When all were seated, he told him, “So and so is here; so and so is there.” The Music-master, Mien, having gone out, Tsze-chang asked saying, “Is it the rule to tell those things to the Music-master?” Confucius replied, “Yes. This is certainly the rule for those who lead the blind.”
21 At one time Confucius was depressed and lamented, “My doctrines make no way. I will get
upon a raft, and float about on the sea. He that will accompany me will be Yu, I dare say”.Yu hearing this was glad.Upon which Confucius observed tartly, “Yu is fonder of daring than I am. He does not exercise his judgment upon such matters.”
22 The Master said, “In letters I am perhaps equal to other men, but the character of the superior man, carrying out in his conduct what he professes, is what I have not yet attained to.”
23 “I will not be afflicted at men's not knowing me; I will be afflicted that I do not know men.”
24 Confucius said, “The sage and the man of perfect virtue—how dare I rank myself with them? It may simply be said of me, that I strive to become such without satiety, and teach others without weariness.”
Kung-hsi Hwa said, “That is just what we disciples cannot imitate in you.”
25 A man of the village of Ta-hsiang scoffed, “Great indeed is the philosopher K'ung! His learning is extensive, and yet he does not render his name famous by any particular thing.”Hearing the gibe, Confucius asked his disciples, “What must I do to please this man? Shall I go in for archery contests? Shall I become a charioteer? That's it, I will take up chariot racing!”
Learning
26 Confucius summed up the importance of knowledge this way, “Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men. Those who learn and readily gain possession of knowledge are the next. Those who are dull and stupid, and yet manage to learn are another class next to these. As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not learn—they are the lowest of the people.“But”, he warned, “Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.”
27 To Yu he said, “Lack of love of learning is at the heart of six sources of confusion.“There is the love of being benevolent without the love of learning—the confusion here leads to a foolish simplicity. There is the love of knowing without the love of learning—the confusion here leads to dissipation of mind. There is the love of being sincere without the love of learning—the confusion here leads to an injurious disregard of consequences. There is the love of straightforwardness without the love of learning—the confusion here leads to rudeness. There is the love of boldness without the love of learning—the confusion here leads to insubordination. There is the love of firmness without the love of learning—the confusion here leads to extravagant conduct.”
28 Chi K'ang asked which of the disciples loved to learn. Confucius replied to him, “There was Tsze-yuan. He loved to learn. Unfortunately his appointed time was short, and he died. Now there is no one who loves to learn, as he did.”When Tsze-yuan died, Confucius bewailed him exceedingly, and the disciples who were with him said, “Master, isn't your grief excessive?“Is it excessive?” he asked. “If I am not to mourn bitterly for this man, for whom should I mourn?”
29 The duke of Sheh asked Tsze-lu about Confucius, and Tsze-lu did not answer him. Confucius asked, “Why did you not say to him—He is simply a man, who in his eager pursuit of knowledge forgets his food, who in the joy of its attainment forgets his sorrows, and who does not perceive that old age is coming on?”
30 “When I walk along with two others, they may serve me as my teachers. I will select their good qualities and follow them, know their bad qualities and avoid them.”
31 “When we see men of worth, we should think of equaling them; when we see men of a contrary haracter, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves.”
32 He said, “There may be those who act without knowing why. I do not do so. Hearing much, selecting what is good and following it; seeing much and keeping it in memory—this is the style of knowledge I prefer.”
33 Tsai Yu being asleep during the day time, Confucius observed, “Rotten wood cannot be carved;
a wall of dirty earth will not receive the trowel. This Yu! —what is the use of my reproving him?
At first, my way with men was to hear their words and give them credit for their conduct. Now my
way is to hear their words and look at their conduct. It is from Yu that I have learned to make this change.”
