Florence Nigtingale

Born in 1820 to a wealthy family. Florence was educated at home by her father. She aspired to serve others, in particular she wanted to become a nurse. Her parents were opposed - at that time, nursing was not seen as an attractive or 'respectable' profession. Despite her parents disapproval, Florence went ahead and trained to be a nurse. Florence later wrote that she felt suffocated by the vanities and social expectations of the upbringing, but, on one occasion sitting in the garden she felt a call from God. She resolved to try and follow God’s will in serving others.




Florence had the opportunity to marry, but, she refused a couple of suitors. She felt marriage would enslave her in domestic responsibilities.



In 1853, the Crimera war broke out. This was a bloody conflict leading to many casualties on both sides. Reports of the British casualites were reported in the press; in particular it was noted that the wounded lacked even the most basic of first aid treatment. Many soldiers were dying unnecessarily. This was a shock to the British public as it was one of the first wars to be reported vividly in the press back home. Later in 1855, Florence Nightingale was asked (with the help of her old friend Sydney Herbert) to travel to the Crimea and organise a group of nurses. Many of the initial applicants were unsuitable and Florence was strict in selecting and training the other nurses.



Florence was very gald to be able to take up the post and put into use her training as a nurse. They were based at the staff hospital at Scutari. She was overwhelmed by the primative and chaotic conditions. There were insufficient beds for the men and conditions were terrible; the place smelt, was dirty and even had rats running around spreading disease. Speaking of Scutari hospital, Florence Nightingale, said



"The British high command had succeeded in creating the nearest thing to hell on earth."



In the beginning, the nurses were not even allowed to treat the dying men, they were only instructed to clean the hospital. But, eventually the number of casualties became so overwhelming the doctors asked Florence and her team of nurses to help.



Florence's attitude included strict discipline for her other nurses, who always wore a highly visible uniform. The efforts of Florence and her team of nurses were greatly appreciated by the wounded soldiers and gradually positive news reports filtered back home, retelling their service.



By the time she returned home she had become a national heroine and was decorated with numerous awards including one from Queen Victoria.

After the war, she didn't really appreciate the fame, but, continued to work for the improvement of hospital conditions, writing to influential people encouraging them to improve hygiene standards in hospitals. She also founded a training school for nurses at St Thomas's hospital, London.



Florence Nigtingale died at the age of 90 in 1910.



Another nurse who gained a strong reputation at the time of the Crimean War was Jamaican nurse, Mary Seacole. Florence Nightingale didn't accept her offer of services when she came to the Crimea. But, Mary worked on her own initiative from a base in Balaclava near the front line. Her reputation amongst British officers was as strong as the reputation of Florence Nightingale. But, it was Florence Nightingale who remained in the public consciousness in the twentieth century.

Galileo

Galileo Galilei - Astronomer and Scientist 1564-1642




Galileo was born in Florence, Italy in 1564 to a poor but noble family.



His parents recognised their child's innate inteligence and talents and so made sacrifices to have him educated. At his father's insistence, Galileo studied the profitable career of medicine. At the University of Pisa, Galileo became fascinated in a wide range of subjects. He was also critical of many of Aristotle's teaching which had dominated education for the past 2,000 years.



Galileo was appointed to be a mathematics professor at the university of Pisa, but, his strident criticisms of Aristotle, left him isolated amongst his contempories. After 3 years of persecution, he resigned and went to the university of Padua. Here he taught maths. His entertaining lectures attracted a large following and he was able to spend the next 18 years pursuing his interests in astronomy and mechanics.



During this time, Galileo made important discoveries about gravity, inertia and also developed the forerunner of the thermometer. Galileo also worked tirelessly on the science of gnomonics (telling time by shadows) and the laws of motion.



It was in astronomy that Galileo that became famous and also courted the opposition of the Holy Roman Catholic Church.



Galileo came to the same conclusions of Copernicus that the sun was the centre of the universe and not the earth. By inventing the world's first telescope, Galileo was able to make many explorations of the universe. He found that



•Saturn had a beautiful ring of clouds.



•The moon was not flat but had mountains and craters.



•Jupiter had many moons which revolved around Jupiter rather than directly the sun.

Thus, Galileo not only had the mathematical proofs of Copernicus, but, also new proof from the science of astronomy. However, Galileo knew that publishing these studies would bring the disproval of the church authorities.



The Church had already started to forbid the teachings of his teachings, especially anything that supported Copernicus.



However, in 1623, a new pope, Pope Urban VIII seemed to be more liberally minded and he allowed Galileo to publish his great works on astronomy and supporting the works of Copernicus.



However, after publication, elements within the Church sought to attack Galileo's position. Thus, Galileo was arrested and imprisoned for several months. He was convicted of heresy and was forced to recant his beliefs. He spent the remaining years of his life under house arrest at Arceti.



Galileo had three children. He was especially close to one of his daughters, Polissena; she took the name of Sister Maria Celeste and entered a convernt near Arceti.

Despite being censured by the church, Galileo continued to make discoveries until death overtook him in 1642. He was blind by the time he passed away.



Galileo made many important contributions to the development of science

Alexander

Alexander was perhaps the greatest military commander of all time. During one decade, he conquered all of the known world leaving one of the world's most extensive empires.

Alexander was born in the northern Greek kingdom of Macedonia in July 356 BC. His parents were Philip II, King of Macedon, and his wife Olympias.






As a young child he was tutored by the great philosopher, Aristotle. Aristotle taught a variety of subjects including philosophy, poetry and ideals of government. To some extent these ideals influenced Alexander when he was later governing conquered nations.

Alexander had a love of music and books, when asked what is greatest possession was, Alexander replied Homer's Illiad. However, he also had a ruthless nature which he displayed on being crowned King. Alexander soon moved to have all potential challengers killed (including his infant half brother)- so he could be the undisputed King. When a friend was found guilty of treason, he also executed his innocent father (who had been a loyal general to Alexander).






On coming to the throne, Alexander united the warring factions in Greece, before leading his army into Persia. Although seemingly outnumbered, Alexander led his army to a decisive victory. It was said that during his reign, Alexander remained undefeated. After beating the Persians, Alexander led his faithful army further East until they came to the regions of Afghanistan and India. Again Alexander proved militarily successful and went onto establish cities in many different countries.






Although, Alexander was ruthless in eliminating rivals to the throne, his treatment of occupied territories was remarkably progressive and tolerant. Alexander forbid his troops from raping and pillaging, but, established new democratic governments incoporating the local customs of the area. He allowed religious tolerance for the different religious groups.






Many stories tell of the loyalty and faith his army had in Alexander. Once they were returning across a desert with hardly and water left. It is said that Alexander's will alone, kept his troops focused on making the return journey. At one point, his army collected a small pitcher of water from the remaining supplies and offered it to Alexander. Alexander said nothing and disdainfully through the precious water into the sand. It was incidents like this which created a God-like image around Alexander. He himself said, it was only sleep and sex which reminded him he was a mortal.






However, he enjoyed a passionate life of drinking, womanising and revelling. For a man seemingly invincible on the battlefield he ironically died at the early age of 32.

Margaret Thatcher.

Biography Margaret Thatcher.

Margaret Thatcher was Britain's first female prime minister, who became a pivotal figure in British and world politics. After studying at Sommerville College, Oxford university, Mrs Thatcher progressed through the ranks of the Conservative party to become education minister in Ed Heath's government of the early 1970s. It was as education minister that Mrs Thatcher developed a rather crude nickname of "Maggie Thatcher - the milk snatcher" It was as education secretary that Mrs Thatcher ended free school milk. Even as a minister, Mrs Thatcher proclaimed that Britain would never have a female prime minister. However, contrary to tradition and expectation, Mrs Thatcher was elected Prime Minister in the Conservative landslide of 1979.






Mrs Thatcher wasted no time in introducing controversial economic policy's. She believed that a harsh implementation of Monetarism was necessary to overcome the economic ills of inflation and low growth, which she blamed on the previous Labour government. However, although she was successful in reducing inflation, deflationary monetary policies caused a serious economic recession, in which unemployment rose to 3 million. Opinion was strongly against many of her policies. In a famous letter to the Times newspaper, 360 economist wrote a letter arguing the government should change its policies immediately. However, in true Thatcher style, she refused. Instead she stood up at the Conservative party conference and stated: "You turn if you want to, but this lady is not for turning." It was characteristic of her whole premiership - fierce in her belief's and unwavering in her commitment.






In the midst of the recession, the Falklands islands were invaded by the Argentinean army. Mrs Thatcher sent a British expeditionary force to reclaim the islands. With relatively light casualties (although many 100s died in the conflict) the islands were retaken. This military victory brought a filip in support for Thatcher. However, it is worth noting she was criticised for both her decision to sink the Belgrano (which was sailing away from the conflict zone) Others also criticised her triumphalist spirit. On reclaiming the islands, Mrs Thatcher proclaimed "rejoice, rejoice" Many felt this was inappropriate given the recent casualties on both the British and Argentinean sides.






Another defining feature of the early Thatcher administration was her battle with trades unions. Thatcher wanted to reduce the power of trades unions, in particular, she wished to reduce the influence of the militant mine workers union, the NUM led by Arthur Scargill. Mrs Thatcher prepared the country for a long strike; when the miners went all out on strike in 1984, they were eventually forced back into work after a year long bitter struggle.






The remaining years of her premiership were overshadowed by her controversial and dogmatic decision to stick with the poll tax. This was widely regarded as an unfair tax because everybody paid the same amount regardless of income. Opposition to the poll tax spilled over into violent protest and her popularity plummeted. Because of her declining popularity she was eventually forced out in 1990. Although she was bitter about her perceived betrayal, she left an unprecedented mark on the UK economic and political landscape. For good or ill, she changed the British economic and political situation. It is ironic that when Labour eventually regained power in 1997, it was largely due to the fact Tony Blair and new Labour took on board many of the economic policies that Mrs Thatcher had initiated. There was often a curious mutual respect between Mrs Thatcher and Tony Blair.

Oscar Wilde Biography

Oscar Wilde is one of the most iconic figures from late Victorian society. Enjoying a meteoric rise to the top of society. His wit, humour and intelligence shine through his plays and writings. For his sexuality he suffered the indignity and shame of imprisonment. For a long time his name was synonymous with scandal and intrigue. However with changing social attitudes he is remembered with great affection for his biting social criticism, wit and linguistic skills.

“To get back my youth I would do anything in the world, except take exercise, get up early or be respectable.”


- Oscar Wilde






As Stephen Fry wrote of Oscar Wilde.






“What of Wilde the man? He stood for Art. He stood for nothing less all his life.. He is still enormously underestimated as an artist and a thinker.. Wilde was a great writer and a great man.”






Short biography: Oscar Wilde


Oscar Wilde was born on 16th October 1854. in Dublin, Ireland. His parents were well known and attracted their fare share of gossip for their extravangant lifestyles. In 1964 his father Wille Wilde was knighted for his services to medicine. However his pride in receiving this honour was overshadowed by an allegation of rape by one of his patients. Although never proved, it cast a shadow over William Wilde.






Oscar Wilde proved to be a student of great talent. He was awarded a scholarship to Trinity College Dublin. Here he studied the classics, in particular developing an interest in the Greek philosophers and the Hellenistic view of life. From Trinity college he won a scholarship to Magdalen College Oxford University. He enjoyed his time in Oxford and was able to develop his poetic sensibilities and love of literature. He also became more conscious of his bisexual nature. For his increasing “femine” dress he often received stick from more “traditional” Oxford students. He was a brilliant scholar but also increasingly rebellious. In one academic year he got rusticated for turning up to College 3 weeks after the start of term. Thus after a while he lost interest in pursuing an academic career in Oxford and moved to London. It was in London that he was able to skilfully enter into high society, soon becoming well known as a playwright and noted wit. Oscar Wilde became famous throughout London society. He was one of the early “celebrities” in some respects he was famous for being famous. His dress was a target for satire in the cartoons, but Wilde didn’t seem to mind. In fact he learnt the art of self-publicity and seemed to revel in it, at least up until his trial in 1898.






Oscar Wilde’s trial gripped the nation, the subject matter a source of intense gossip and speculation. For his “crime” of homosexual acts Wilde was subject to 2 years hard labour in Wandsworth and then Reading Gaol. It is no understatement to say this experience deeply shocked and affected the previously ebullient Wilde. In some respects he never really recovered, on his release he left for Paris where he lived in comparative anonymity. However he retained his wit and continued to write, heavily influenced by his chastening experiences. Of these post gaol writings, his poem “Ballad of Reading Gaol is perhaps the most well known, illustrating a new dimension to Wilde’s writing.






“I never saw a man who looked


With such a wistful eye


Upon that little tent of blue


Which prisoners call the sky.”






..






“ I walked with other souls in pain.


Within another ring.


And was wondering if the man had done


A great or little thing.


When a voice behind me whispered low,


That fellows got to swing.”






From: Ballad of Reading Gaol






Although Wilde couldn’t return to his previous level of writing he developed new capacities, whilst retaining his sharp intellect. As Johnathon fryer commented on Oscar Wilde’s final part of life he was.






“beaten but not bowed, still a clown behind a mask of tragedy.”






The Life of Wilde was turbulent and volatile. Never short of incident. It reflected his own inner paradoxes and revolutionary views. In some ways he was both a saint and sinner at the same time. Rightly or wrongly Wilde is remembered as much for his life as his writings. However he himself said.






“I have put my talent into writing, my genius I have saved for living.”






His writings reflect in part his paradoxical view of life, suggesting things were not always as they appeared. As his biographer Richard Ellman said of Wilde.






“Along with Blake and Nietzche , he was proposing that good and evil are not what they seem, and that moral tabs cannot cope with the complexity of behaviour”






Whatever one may make of Wilde’s life, his capacity for writing remains undeniable. His greatest work and comedy is arguably “The importance of being Earnest” Here the plotline is thin to say the least but Wilde brings it alive through his scintillating repertoire of wit and biting humour.






“Relations are simply a tedious pack of people, who haven’t got the remotest knowledge of how to live, nor the smallest instinct about when to die.”






- Algernon, Act I






“Thirty-five is a very attractive age. London society is full of women of the very highest birth who have, of their own free choice, remained thirty-five for years."






- Lady Bracknell, Act III














Wilde was not an overtly political commentator but through his plays there is an underlying critique of social norms that are illumined for their absurdities.






Wilde remains a fascinating character. One who lived life to the full, experiencing both the joy and tragedy of society’s vacillating judgements. With the distance of over a century it is easier to judge Wilde for his unique contributions to literature rather than through the eyes of Victorian moral standards. His quotes have become immortal a fitting tribute to a genius of the witticism






“I am so clever that sometimes I don’t understand a single word of what I am saying.”